Updated: September 25 2013
What Is It?Choline (quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation) is a water-soluble essential compund. It is usually grouped within the B-complex vitamins. [1-3]
1. Choline is found naturally in sunflower lecithin syrup, raw beef liver, soy lecithin granules, wheat germ, cod fish, broccoli, cauliflower, chicken, tofu, egg, peanuts, and in grapefruit.
2. Choline appears in phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin (both phospholipids in cell membranes). It is the precursor molecule for acetylcholine.
Forms/Sources of Choline
1. Choline bitrate
2. Choline citrate
3. Lecithin
What Does Human Research Studies Say?
1. Increase atherogenesis/atherosclerosis; this is due to a metabolite of choline known as TMAO; this does not occur with lecithin (phosphatidylcholine) and choline itself. [6,8,9,10]
2. Reduces/reverses the progression of fatty liver disease. [11]
3. No to small (unreliable) increase in endurance performance; but this increase might only be evident in activities that reduce circulating choline levels below normal. [12,13,14]
4. Unreliable reduction of genetic expression of cortisol production offspring of choline-supplementing mother; this was seen after consumption of 930 mg choline. [15]
What Does Animal/Tissue Culture Research Studies Say?
1. Increase atherogenesis/atherosclerosis in mice/rats; this is due to a metabolite of choline known as TMAO; this does not occur with lecithin (phosphatidylcholine) and choline itself. [5,7,10]
Conclusion
Seems beneficial.
Verdict: May be added to your supplement stack
Recommended Dosage (Used in the Studies)
1. For general health: 250mg to 500mg daily
2. For cognition/memory: 1-2g
3. Too high dose may cause headache: start out at 50-100mg daily and go up in accordance with your tolerance.
Where Can You Buy This Supplement?
Amazon.com
Side Effects of This Supplement
1. Choline sources are usually safe. [1,4]
2. High doses (10 to 16 grams/day) may cause increased sweating, fishy body odor, vomiting, salivation, gastrointestinal distress, and diarrhea. [1,4]
3. Choline supplementation could increase the formation of nitrosamines (marked carcinogenic activity). [10]
References
1. Choline
2. Choline: an essential nutrient for public health
3. Choline
4. WebMD - Choline
5. The exogenous origin of trimethylamine in the mouse
6. Isoform specificity of trimethylamine N-oxygenation by human flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO) and P450 enzymes: selective catalysis by FMO3
7. Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease
8. Dietary precursors of trimethylamine in man: a pilot study.
9. Antibiotic overuse: Stop the killing of beneficial bacteria.
6. Isoform specificity of trimethylamine N-oxygenation by human flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO) and P450 enzymes: selective catalysis by FMO3
7. Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease
8. Dietary precursors of trimethylamine in man: a pilot study.
9. Antibiotic overuse: Stop the killing of beneficial bacteria.
10. Formation of methylamines from ingested choline and lecithin
12. Choline ingestion does not modify physical or cognitive performance.
13. The effects of choline supplementation on physical performance
14. Effect of choline supplementation on fatigue in trained cyclists.
15. Maternal choline intake alters the epigenetic state of fetal cortisol-regulating genes in humans
12. Choline ingestion does not modify physical or cognitive performance.
13. The effects of choline supplementation on physical performance
14. Effect of choline supplementation on fatigue in trained cyclists.
15. Maternal choline intake alters the epigenetic state of fetal cortisol-regulating genes in humans
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